Review of Family Types Essay

Single-Parent Families A single-parent family is a family where the parents are divorced or one of the parents died. Children from single parent families tend to have more problems than children from families with two parents. Research has shown that children from single-parent families get lower grades in school. As a result, fewer children from single parent families go to university. They also get in trouble with the police more. When children from single-parent families grow up, they are more likely to commit a crime or go to jail. However, not all children from single-parent families have problems. Single parents can also be very loving and caring. Nuclear Families Nuclear families are families where just parents and their children live together. Traditionally, most people lived in extended families but increasingly people are choosing to live in nuclear families. Research has shown that urbanization is the main reason why people have changed from living in extended families to living in nuclear families. (Urbanization is when people leave the countryside to live in the city). In Japan, for example, most people lived in extended families before WWII. But now most people live in nuclear families. And before WWII only 38% of people lived in cities, but now 80% of the people live in cities. Extended Families Extended families are families where three or more generations are living in the same house. Usually, that means that the grandparents are living with their children and grandchildren. Research has shown that there are several advantages to living in extended families. Extended families are very important in countries where there is no social security net. Extended families help prevent elderly people from becoming poor. Another advantage is that the grandparents can look after the children. During the day, the grandparents watch the children to make sure that they are ok. And they also talk to the children when the parents are busy. This helps the children learn their language. And since the children are well taken care of, both of the parents are free to work on the farm or earn money in jobs. Bicultural Families Bicultural families are families where the parents come from different nationalities or different religions or different races. One advantage to coming from a bicultural family is that the children have more experiences. And so they tend to be more open-minded. Language is another area where bicultural children have an advantage. Research has shown that children can easily learn two languages when they are young. But it is important for the parents to not mix the languages. The father should only use the father’s language when speaking to the child and the mother should only use the mother’s language. However, one disadvantage of living in a bicultural family is that children have an identity problem. They don’t know who they are. Quiz – Four Families What are single-parent families? Do children from single parents tend to have more or fewer problems? What two problems does the article talk about? (1) (2) Do all children from single-parent families have problems? What is an extended family? Where are extended families very important? How do grandparents help children? What is a nuclear family? What is the main reason why more and more people live in nuclear families? How did Japan change after WWII? What is a bicultural family? How are children from bicultural families different from other children? If bicultural parents want to teach their children how to speak two languages what should they do? What problems do bicultural children have?

Critically Evaluate the Case for and Against Global Governance Essays

Critically Evaluate the Case for and Against Global Governance Essays Critically Evaluate the Case for and Against Global Governance Essay Critically Evaluate the Case for and Against Global Governance Essay 1. 0Introduction: Mulley ( 2008 ) defines planetary administration as government-like activities in the international system . Over the past eight decennaries. it has been possible to witness the growing and development of the assorted establishments and administrations that compose modern planetary administration. From the creative activity of the United Nations to the constitution of the European Union. planetary administration has had a major influence on political relations and on our mundane lives. The intent of this essay is to analyze the different facets of planetary administration and effort to critically measure statements for and against its being. Therefore. this essay begins with the instance against planetary administration by oppugning the function of planetary establishments consistently concentrating on some of the major failures of the international system. such as the managing of the universe fiscal crisis of 2008. It so moves on to measure whether the current international community is able to confront challenges such as growth of planetary inequality and planetary warming ( Jayadev. 2010 ) . Subsequently. the successes of the assorted organic structures of planetary administration such as the United Nations Social and Economic council and its Millennium development ends and the benefits of the Single European market will be discussed. Furthermore. the essay will analyze some current tendencies. such as the planetary heating understanding reached late in Cancun Mexico. which give cause for cautious optimism ( Mulley. 2008 ) . Ultimately. this essay constructs a balanced analysis of the positive and negative statements on planetary administration and will finally measure whether the statements proposed reach a coherent and plausible decision 2. 0 Arguments against: After sketching the construction of this paper. this essay will get down by measuring the statements against planetary administration. First. it will analyze the authoritative statement of the administration quandary. Boyer et Al. ( 2007 ) describes the administration quandary as the increasing demand of more and more states for international administrations to turn to jobs on a planetary scale†¦ . yet when these establishments undermine province sovereignty the states become less and less willing to back up them . This position appropriately represents the construct of the administration quandary because as Boyer et Al ( 2007 ) later states The appropriate function of planetary establishments in affairs that cross province sovereignty is a affair of high profile and controversy . To back up this statement it is necessary to look back on the behavior of antique U. S President George Bush during the preliminary to the war in Iraq. Initially. he stated that Although I would wish the United Nations Security Council to approve military intercession in Iraq. I do non experience it is necessary ( Boyer et al. 2007 ) . However. he concluded that the U. S will move one-sidedly. I am confident the American people will understand that when it comes to our security if we need to move we will move. We truly do non necessitate the United Nations’ blessing to make it . ( Boyer et al 2007 ) . It is clear that planetary administration can non work without the support of the states and of their peoples and that at the same clip a turning figure of the policy challenges confronting provinces in the modern-day planetary system are multinational in character and therefore demand many-sided solutions for effectual resolution ( Mearshimer. 1995 ) . State provinces need to happen a balance in the mutuality between national and supranational otherwise planetary administration will stay uneffective. As writer David Held ( 2006 ) proposes: The paradox of our times refers to the fact that the corporate issues we must cope with are of turning cross-border extensity and strength but the agencies for turn toing these are state-based. weak and uncomplete. Second. the essay will look back at the events of the universe fiscal crisis of 2008 and why planetary administration has failed to cover with it in an effectual manner. It is a fact that policy devising in the wake of the fiscal crisis was nationally based instead than cover with at an international degree. In add-on it could be argued that non merely responses to assist states unable to cover with the crisis were weak and non-committal but besides that international establishments themselves were a major subscriber to the crisis by supplying narrow policy advice ( Jayadev. 2010 ) . The Commission of Experts set up by the President of the United Nations agreed with the latter point in chapter 4 of their study: The response of international fiscal establishments to the planetary fiscal crisis has demonstrated the urgency to reexamine the adequateness of their mandates ( Jayadev. 2010 ) . International administrations did non acknowledge the failing of the planetary economic system but they besides promoted policies that prevented national governments from protecting their citizens from economic instability. It can be argued that from the point of position of poorer states the result of the fiscal crisis is merely a contemplation of the go oning failure of planetary administration. In fact the UN estimated that up to a 103 million more people would fall into poorness because of the crisis and worse of all the IMF estimated that the cost to African economic systems from the crisis was around $ 250 billion ( Jayadev. 2010 ) . This statement one time once more proposes the job that the members of current planetary establishments continue to trust on the Westphalia premise that the state is the 1 that acts and makes decisions ( Jayadev 2010 ) . Furthermore. the paper moves onto the more delicate topic of the failure of most international administrations in efficaciously deciding planetary and non planetary struggle. The flooring instance of Rwanda is likely one of the clearest illustrations of moral inadequacy of modern-day planetary governance ( Murphy. 2000 ) . From April to July 1994 between 500. 000 and 800. 000 people including ? of the Tutsi population were slaughtered. The events happened despite a widely sanctioned UN Genocide Convention and ample warning provided to the UN secretariat and the Security Council by its ain officers in the field ( Murphy. 2000 ) . The effects of the race murder were dramatic. Writer Peter Uvin ( 1998 ) writes: The Tutsi military authorities seized power to halt the race murder and accordingly moved on to trip a cascade of wars across cardinal Africa . The whole International community was blamed and put to dishonor. By analysing the grounds why the international community was set up. most of import one being to avoid international struggle. it could be argued that the failure to efficaciously step in in a struggle is the biggest and most of import failure of planetary administration. Finally. the literature reasoning the instance against planetary administration brings up another defect of modern international administrations. more specifically mentioning to the demand of a reform in the UN construction. It is possible to detect that at the minute the United Nations Security Council mostly reflects the state of affairs of 1945. China. France. Russia. United Kingdom and the United States of America have been the lasting members for decennaries. The last decennary brought major alterations in the planetary political economic system ; there has been a greater economic end product from states such as India and Brazil and yet Belgium still holds more quotas than Brazil. 2. 12 % against 1. 41 % . at the International Monetary Fund ( Jayadev. 2010 ) . The economic and political scene is clearly changing and so should the assorted organic structures that make up planetary administration.

Jackson vs. Calhoun and the Nullification Crisis Essay Essays

Jackson vs. Calhoun and the Nullification Crisis Essay Essays Jackson vs. Calhoun and the Nullification Crisis Essay Paper Jackson vs. Calhoun and the Nullification Crisis Essay Paper It has been rare in American history for presidents and vice-presidents non to acquire along. but it has happened on a few occasions: Adams and Jefferson. Kennedy and Johnson. and Eisenhower and Nixon are a few illustrations ( Jackson vs. Calhoun-Part 1 1 ) . However. the most controversial relationship between president and his helper was between Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun. Their dissensions began really early on in Jackson’s disposal. and lasted until after the declaration of the Nullification Crisis. Nullification is the refusal of a province to acknowledge a federal jurisprudence within its boundaries and deem that jurisprudence unconstitutional. In this instance. South Carolina. led by John C. Calhoun. refused to acknowledge the protective duties in 1828. and 1832. stating that they benefited the North and injured the South. At this point in clip. the American system of authorities was reasonably new and the battle between province and federal power was in full swing. Towards the terminal of the crisis. Calhoun went so far as to endanger to splinter from the Union to demo Jackson and the remainder of America that single province authoritiess were so powerful. When the wrangle had reached its extremum. Jackson had had plenty and decided it was clip to set an terminal to the crisis. The actions and determinations made by President Andrew Jackson in respects to John C. Calhoun and the Nullification Crisis non merely enabled the Union to stay together. but proved the power of the federal authorities. Before reexamining Jackson’s actions during the Nullification Crisis it is of import to understand where the dissensions between the two work forces originated. In 1829. merely shortly before Jackson was inaugurated. John Eaton. a friend and shortly to be secretary of war under Jackson. married the widow and non-reputable Peggy O’Neale Timberlake. Because Timberlake was now the married woman of a adult male in office. the other adult females would hold to accept her as an equal. which they were non happy about. Jackson. nevertheless. refused to believe that the adult females were justified in their behaviour. for he considered Peggy to be â€Å"chaste as a virgin† ( Barzman 56 ) . After Jackson ordered the married womans of all of his associates to see Mrs. Eaton as a societal equal. they all complied except for one ; Floride Calhoun. the married woman of John C. Calhoun. Calhoun subsequently claimed to Jackson he could non ( or would non ) change the head of his strong willed married woman. This enraged the freshly elected President and began the disruptive nature of the two men’s relationship. The chief facet which fueled their hapless relationship was their differences in political sentiments. Although both work forces were from similar parts of the state and both were dedicated to the public assistance of their place provinces. they disagreed on one really of import country. Jackson was a patriot. who believed strongly in continuing the Union and puting federal power over that of the single provinces. Calhoun. on the other manus. was precisely the antonym. Although anterior to 1830. he had been a patriot. Calhoun was now an utmost states’ rights advocator ( Barzman 56 ) . This colossal difference in political doctrine set the scene for the most of import statement between president and vice-president and foreshadows Calhoun’s programs for South Carolina. Calhoun had been garnering his information and explicating his thoughts for the hereafter of South Carolina for rather some clip. waiting for the perfect chance to uncover his maestro program. He wanted to declare nullification because his place province of South Carolina was economically down. fearful about the hereafter of bondage. and thought the new duties supported the North at the disbursal of the South ( The Nullification 1 ) . Jackson had an thought that Calhoun was be aftering something extremist so at the Jefferson Day Dinner on April 30. 1830. he stated that â€Å"Our Union–it must be preserved† . To this Calhoun replied. â€Å"The Union. Next to our autonomies. most dear† ( Barzman 58 ) . After publically declaring his dedication to South Carolina before the Union. Calhoun resigned the vice-presidential term and served in the South Carolina Senate. Less than two old ages subsequently. on April 24. 1832. Calhoun sent the South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification to Jackson. in which he declared. â€Å"The people of the province of South Carolina declare the responsibilities imposed by said Acts of the Apostless. and all judicial proceedings which shall be afterlife had in affirmance thereof. are and shall be void and null. We do farther declare that we will non subject to the application of force on the portion of the Federal Government† ( Hamilton 1 ) . Jackson. appalled by this direct menace to the Union and the Federal Government. was determined to set Calhoun in his topographic point and make anything he could to continue the Union. Although Calhoun had stated in his Regulation that South Carolina would non react to any forceful Acts of the Apostless by the authorities to try to acquire Calhoun to endorse down. Jackson found a manner to outwit his opposition. Jackson had congress base on balls a measure in 1833. â€Å"which allowed him to utilize soldiers to implement the duty measures† ( Nullification Crisis 1 ) . After the Force Bill was passed. Jackson sent several war vessels and 100s of soldiers to Charleston to implement the Torahs of the authorities. Some people argue that what Jackson did was incorrectly because based on the fundamental law. Calhoun had the right to declare Nullification for South Carolina. However. what Jackson did was besides constitutional and enabled the United States of America to stay as one. Had Jackson non passed the Force Bill instantly after South Carolina’s Ordinance was received. Calhoun’s strategy may hold succeeded and South Carolina would hold seceded from the Union. turn outing that the Federal Government truly did non hold any power over that of the single province. After the footings of the Force Bill were set into topographic point. Calhoun began to recognize the problem he had gotten himself into and wanted to happen a dignified manner to deliver himself and his place province. At first Calhoun attempted to happen other provinces willing to back up and fall in his cause. but no other Southern provinces seemed to hold with his theory of nullification. In order to decide the issue. Calhoun went to Henry Clay. the â€Å"Great Compromiser† . for aid. Towards the terminal of 1833. Clay was able to outline a via media which â€Å"pacified South Carolina while leting the Federal authorities to stand firm† ( The Nullification 2 ) . This dialogue bit by bit reduced the duties over a period of 10 old ages until they returned down to the degree which had existed in 1816. Jackson and Calhoun both signed the via media and the crisis ended without bloodshed. Many people argue that it was due to the negociating accomplishments of Henry Clay. non Jackson. which enabled the Union to stay in tact. However. had Jackson non passed the Force Bill ab initio. Calhoun neer would hold been pressured into seeking out Clay for aid. With the decision of the Nullification Crisis its significance to the growing of the American authorities became evident. By Jackson get the better ofing Calhoun. and basically get the better ofing the statement of states’ rights advocators. he accomplished two of import things. His first achievement was that he had â€Å"proved the power of the Federal Government to implement Torahs. even when provinces disagree with them† ( Jackson vs. Calhoun – Part 2 2 ) . This non merely gave the American people more assurance in the Federal Government. but made them get down to recognize that holding province authoritiess stronger than the Federal authorities would non be good to the state. Jackson’s 2nd achievement was that he enabled the Union to stay integral. He had postponed any bloodshed over the issue of states’ rights – but merely for 30 old ages. Had Calhoun’s wants been fulfilled. the Union may hold fallen apart and his place province of South Carolina would hold become a powerful autonomous district. The difference in political doctrine between Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun was the root of their disruptive relationship. which began early on in their executive life together. The confrontational nature of their relationship led America into the Nullification Crisis during which Calhoun put the public assistance of his place province above that of the brotherhood. seeking to splinter and demo the power of province authorities. Jackson would non hold provinces overmastering the authorities. and passed the Force Bill leting him to utilize the Federal Army and Navy to acquire South Carolina to obey the Torahs the Federal Government had made. State Government and Calhoun lost their conflict and the Federal Government proved its powers. Although he was non able to wipe out the job of states’ rights. were it non for Jackson’s intelligent determinations during the Nullification Crisis. the United States may non hold existed. as a individual brotherhood. as it does today.

MEDIATION between Saudi Arabia and The U.S Thesis

MEDIATION between Saudi Arabia and The U.S - Thesis Example With a shift in public policies, increasing numbers of corporates and legal firms are using alternative dispute resolution or ADR processes for conflict resolution. This paper explores mediation, which is a type of  alternative dispute resolution  process, where a third member or party, known as the mediator, helps the disputing parties to  reach a settlement. It will also study the mediation processes followed in the US and Saudi Arabia, while also taking into consideration the mediation methods not adopted by these two countries. Alternative dispute resolution or ADR (also referred to external dispute resolution  in countries, as Australia)1 is a process other than litigation or adjudication in court, in which there is the presence of a neutral third party who helps to resolve conflicts or disputes.2 The process includes  conflict resolution  procedures and mechanisms, which allows the conflicting parties to reach an agreement that would not result in litigation. ADR is actually an umbrella term for different ways in which the conflicting parties can work out a resolution, with or even without the presence and assistance of a third party. Despite a general perspective that ADR processes are capable of elevating the outcome quality and the degree of justice achieved in a conflict situation, ADR has faced a great deal of resistance in the past. As experts claimed, â€Å"for decades different forms of dispute resolution (ADR) have been proposed, developed, critiqued, modified, renamed, redefined and slow ly brought within the usually suspicious, and sometimes hostile, edifice of state-based normative ordering. Some see this as†¦democratic storming of the Kafkaesque citadel of the law†¦[While] others see it as a dangerous dilution or even undermining of justice.†3 Despite the initial resistance, ADR has currently gained global popularity and acceptance amongst the common people and those in the  law

Mitral valve prolapse and treatment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Mitral valve prolapse and treatment - Term Paper Example This paper shall discuss mitral valve prolapse, its causes, incidence, and risk factors, as well as interventions and treatment measures. This paper is being carried out in order to establish a clear and comprehensive understanding of the condition, its impact on the health, as well as related nursing interventions. The mitral valve is the valve which ensures that blood on the left side of the heart flows in one direction (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2011). In effect, it prevents backflow of blood during heart contraction. Mitral valve prolapse manifests when the mitral valve fails to close properly, thereby causing the back flow of blood during contraction. Mitral valve prolapse can be caused by a variety of things, mostly by physical changes in the valve (WebMD, 2011). Physical changes, including the thickening of the valve can cause the prolapse. The causes of these physical changes are not entirely known. It may also be genetically inherited by family members. Health issues which affect the mitral valve, connective tissue and heart muscles can also cause mitral valve prolapse, however, these are very rare. Related conditions, including osteogenesis imperfecta and hyperthyroidism are also considerations in this condition (WebMD, 2011). For the most part, this condition is harmless and sometimes patients are unaware that they have this heart condition. In fact, about 10% of the population is known to have minor mitral valve prolapse, however, most of the time it does not affect their lives. In some instances, this prolapse can cause blood back flow. This is known as mitral regurgitation, and may sometimes require surgery and medical treatment (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2011). Mitral valves which have structural issues have an increased risk for bacterial infection. It is a condition which often impacts on thin women with minor chest deformities, scoliosis, or related disorders (University of Maryland

Write a 1,000-word essay about the value and limitations of the

Write a 1,000-word about the value and limitations of the document in understanding American foreign policy-making and US relations with China (both Natio - Essay Example It reflects some clear thinking in the US State Department in its understanding of issues related to China. Broadly put, the proposed policy aims to build a calibrated relationship with China but at the same time have a strong upper hand in this relationship. This paper provides a wider perspective to the ‘draft document’ and contextualizes the policy of the US government towards China to the prevailing national and international political scenarios of the time. The proposed policy rightly aims to assist the Chinese people by providing them with food stocks. The ‘Great Leap Forward’ beginning 1958 which was about simultaneous development of agricultural and industrial sectors, turned out to be a major economic disaster for China, leaving, by some estimates around 20 million dead. Providing China with much needed food relief and other humanitarian aid such as medical information and advanced warnings about natural disasters, in this scenario, would have indeed helped Chinese people (if not the Chinese Government) warm up to the Americans. What the proposed policy fails to take into account is that China has always been a ‘closed’ State. Even in 2008, in an era of internet and mobile phones, the Chinese people are largely dependent on government filtered sources of information (Jonathan Zittrain and Benjamin Edelman). Attempting to influence opinions of Chinese people in the 1960s would have only been tougher. By attempting to reward the Japanese and Indians, the proposed policy rightly aims to strengthen the nuclear capabilities, albeit for peaceful purposes, of China’s neighbours, and in turn, build a perception that China’s military capabilities are neither unique nor so strong as to push the smaller neighbours into China’s fold. The US strategy of containment of China is envisages the willingness of the smaller players such as Japan or larger ones such as India to become a pawn in

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay Example for Free

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay Sigmund Freud, born in 1856 was an Austrian neurologist who would later go on to found the discipline of psychoanalysis. He is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and repression and his concept of the dynamic unconscious suggesting that it is our unconscious mind that determines how we as individuals behave, Freud also believed that the unconscious mind established sexual drives as the dominant motivation of human life. He considered the unconscious mind as being the source of mental energy which determined behaviour, basing his findings on the results of his use of hypnosis where he found that he was able to produce and remove symptoms of hysteria. There have been numerous approaches in the field of psychology that have put forward the belief that behaviour is directed by an individual’s goals but the idea behind a goal-directed unconscious is an original Freudian concept. The main underlying belief of this theory is that any individuals’ behaviour is the direct result of the influences that prior experiences have had on them where these influences have an even greater effect if they are from our childhood. Freud believed that our early experiences formed the solid foundations on which we would build the structure of our life and that the adult personality is indeed formed in childhood according to the situations, treatment and feelings experienced as a child. Freud defined the human psyche as comprising of three parts, the unconscious or sub-conscious containing material that we are unable to bring into our conscious awareness and therefore unknowable. The preconscious which consists of information that is not at the present moment in our conscious awareness but is stored in our memory and can if need be easily recalled to the conscious level; and the conscious part of our mind which is where all current and new incoming content is processed. Within these parts operate the Id, the Ego and the Super Ego that work together to create complex human behaviours. The Id is the only part of our personality that is present from birth and is entirely unconscious, seeking instant gratification and fulfilling instinctive human needs. The Id is governed by the pleasure principle desiring the fulfilment of all desires, needs and wants. If these are not immediately satisfied this results in a state of anxiety or tension. The Id serves of great importance early on in life, a child will cry as a  result of their Id if they are hungry or in discomfort and ensures that their needs are met. Later on in life it is not always realistic or indeed possible to immediately satisfy such needs, it would be morally and socially unacceptable for us to just help ourselves to other peoples things in order to satisfy our own needs and wants and so later in childhood our Ego comes in to play. The Ego is responsible for dealing with reality and acts to ensure that the impulses of the Id are satisfied in a way that is acceptable to the real world and functions in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious parts of our mind. The reality principle weighs up the pros and cons of an action before deciding whether or not to act upon the impulse. Often the impulses of the Id can be satisfied but through delayed gratification with the Ego allowing the behaviour at an appropriate time and place. The Ego is a part of the Id th at has been somewhat modified and rounded by external factors in the environment in which we live. Freud originally used the word Ego to mean a sense of self but later revised it to represent a set of psychic functions such as judgement, control, intellectual functioning and memory. Finally we develop our Super Ego. The Super Ego is the part of our personality that holds our morals and ideals that we have acquired from our parents and environment and acts as a voice for right and wrong. As with the Ego it is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious parts of our mind. The Super Ego consists of two parts, the Ego ideal which sets out the rules and standards for good behaviour. Conformity to behaviours that are approved of by our parents and people in positions of authority give us feelings of pride and accomplishment. The second part of the Ego is the Conscience which holds information on all the things that are viewed as being bad by our parents and the society in which we live. Behaviours that are forbidden or at the very least frowned upon and fill us with feelings of guilt and remorse. The perfection principle of the Super Ego strives to suppress any unacceptable desires of the Id and to make our Ego act upon idealistic rather than realistic standards. One of Freuds better known theories and also one of the most controversial is that of psycho-sexual development. He proposed that an instinctual libido is present in all of us from birth and develops in five stages. First is the oral stage which occurs from birth up until around the age of eighteen months. The main focus here being the  gratification and pleasures the infant receives through feeding. Children in this stage place objects into their mouths in order to orally explore their environment. At this young age the child is entirely dependent on their carers and thus develops a sense of trust and comfort in relation to those carers. This stage is dominated by the Id as at this point the Ego and Superego have not yet fully developed and all actions are based on the â€Å"Pleasure Principle†. The key experience for a child in the oral stage of development is weaning, allowing the child to become less dependent on their caretakers. Freud said that too much or too little gratification may lead to an oral fixation, which Freud claimed could result in them developing a passive, immature, manipulative personality. This fixation could present in an adult as issues with eating, smoking, nail biting and aggression. The second stage of psycho-sexual development is the anal stage taking place between around 18 months to three years old. Freud believed at this stage that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is the key experience here which brings into conflict the Id that demands immediate gratification and the Ego that demands delayed gratification. The resulting outcome of this conflict is heavily influenced by the parenting style that a child receives during toilet training. The ideal resolution of this conflict is a gradual adjustment whereby the child adjusts to moderate parental demands, learning the values of physical cleanliness and self control. Freud suggested that if parents over-emphasized toilet training or punished accidents then the child may develop what we term as an anally retentive personality, with the potential to become obsessively concerned with neatness and order. On the other hand if the parents were too lenient then the child may develop an anally expulsive and destructive personality whereby they are self-indulgent, messy and wasteful. Faeces and money are often linked in psychodynamic literature and according to Freudian theory; attitudes to money can reveal what the individual experienced during toilet training. The third stage of psycho-sexual development is the phallic stage taking place between the ages of three and six. During this time a child begins to gain awareness of its body and also the bodies of their parents and other  children, in particular genitalia. They begin to explore their genitals and learn the physical differences between male and female. During this stage boys experience what Freud termed as the Oedipus complex whereby the child wishes to remove his father in order to gain full attention of his mother’s affections. This urge to eliminate the father is controlled by what he termed as castration anxiety and so instead the child learns to imitate the father. Girls experience what Carl Jung in 1913 termed as the Electra complex where instead she wishes to remove the mother in order to gain full possession of her father. Freud however rejected this term as being psycho-analytically inaccurate believing that the reasoning behind the Oedipus complex applied only to male children and that it was wrong to share this analogy between the two sexes. He did however believe that girls experienced what he termed as penis envy and that initially the child experiences a lot of anger towards their mother for not sharing the same appendage as their father but in time they learn to identify with their mother in order to possess their father. Freud was very much influenced by the death of his father in 1896. In the three years following the death of his father, Freud became preoccupied with self-analysis where he realised that he had repressed feelings of anger and resentment against his father. He believed that as a small boy he had been in love with his mother and was jealous of his father. Freud based his theory of early sexual development on personal theory instead of exploring further using empirical methods. The fourth stage of psycho-sexual development is the latency stage taking place from around the age of six up until puberty. During this stage the child enters into a sexually dormant period, consolidating the habits of the previous three stages. The Ego and Superego take precedence over the Id due to the childs defence mechanisms repressing its instinctual drives during the phallic stage. Now that gratification is delayed, the child is driven to derive pleasure from external activities such as friendships, education and hobbies. Any neuroses established during this fourth stage of psycho-sexual development may be due to the unresolved issues of the Oedipus complex or the Egos failure to focus on socially acceptable activities. The fifth and final stage of psycho-sexual development is the genital stage  that spans from puberty throughout the remainder of adult life. As with the phallic stage the genital stage is focussed upon genitalia but in this instance the sexuality is consensual and more often involving another adult in the form of a relationship rather than being solitary and infantile. This is due to the establishment of the Ego which shifts attention away from primary-drive gratification to secondary process thinking and to satisfy desire in a more symbolic and intellectual way through loving relationships, friendships and family. The genital stage is the time when a person is able to resolve any psycho-sexual childhood conflicts that they may have and allows psychological detachment and independence from their parents. In previous stages focus was placed solely on individual needs, now the welfare of others comes strongly into play and if all stages have been completed successfully then Freud believed that the individual should be a well-balanced and fully functioning person. Unfortunately it isnt all that simple and the Id, the Ego and the Super Ego continuously come into conflict with one another. The Ego has to work to control the demands of the Id whilst at the same time having regard for the restrictions placed upon it by the Super Ego. At times these desires and constraints cause conflict that our Ego is unable to deal with resulting in anxiety and stress. Freud identified three types of anxiety, firstly neurotic anxiety which occurs through fear that we will lose control of the Ids urges and the resulting punishment for inappropriate behaviour. Secondly reality anxiety which is a fear of external events often culminating in phobias, we are able to reduce such anxiety by avoiding the threatening object or situation. Thirdly is moral anxiety from a fear of violating our own moral principles and values that have been set down by our Super Ego. Neurosis also figured heavily in Freuds psycho-analytical theory. He proposed that neurosis occurs when the Ego is unable to deal with desires that produce feelings of guilt and a sense of wrong. Through repression these thoughts manifest themselves through symptoms that have no physical dysfunction. The mental illness acts as a replacement for the guilt ridden desires of the Id allowing the Ego to avoid the conflict between itself and the Id. Such symptoms however are worse than the conflict they set out to hide, not only stopping the individual from being accepting of their repressed desires but  also causing them to become socially incapable of enjoying a happy and healthy life. He also believed that neurosis can be triggered by a traumatic childhood event that the individual is unable to handle. Often such experiences give rise to feelings of guilt that we seek to repress through use of various displacement mechanisms. Sometimes these repressed memories make their way back into our conscious minds in a different form producing a great amount of anxiety in turn triggering psychological disorders that seek to block out the real cause. Psychoanalytical therapy has proved productive in being able to help a client uncover unconscious defence mechanisms and help them find better ways of dealing with their anxiety or removing it all together. Psycho-analysis opened up a new view regarding the treatment of mental illness, suggesting that psychological distress could be reduced through talking about their problems with a therapist. The work of Freud was responsible for bringing about a greater understanding of behaviour that was unusual and differences were no longer automatically equated as unacceptable, with understanding comes greater tolerance. He radically changed the view of sexuality making it an acceptable topic of conversation and a natural part of a healthy, happy life. The approach is also credited with highlighting the importance of childhood and our unconscious mind. Despite the influential effect of his theories Freud is open to numerous criticisms. Many psychologists have adopted his ideas but there has been a great deal of modernisation on his original views. Carl Jung who was a pupil of Freuds even disagreed with certain aspects of his theories; in particular Freud’s reliance on sex as the answer to many problems. Jung went on to develop his own theories known as Analytical Psychology. Erich Fromm rejected Freuds view that the drives of the human being are solely biological, believing instead that it was down to our freedom of choice and ability to choose our own destiny. He believed any conflict arose as a result of the fear or uncertainty which that freedom entailed. Feminists are particularly critical of the work of Freud due to the sexist nature of many of his ideas. Neo-Freudian Karen Horney proposed that instead of penis envy girls in fact developed power envy and that in their inability to bear  children men develop womb and vagina envy. Scientifically the validity of Freuds theory of psycho-sexual development is brought in to question due to his perceived personal fixation on human sexuality and the phallic stage of development proved controversial for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex. Many were critical of the fact that a lot of Freuds ideas were based on case studies or clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research. Contemporary criticism questions the universality of Freuds theory of personality and psycho-sexual development. Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski studied the matriarchal society of the Trobriand where young boys are punished by their maternal uncles not their fathers and thus suggested that in this case power is the source of Oedipal conflict not sexual jealousy. Contemporary research has also confirmed that although personality traits corresponding to the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages are observable they are not necessarily fixed stages of childhood or indeed adult personality traits that were derived from childhood. While there is no denying that Freud is of great historical significance and he developed many ground breaking theories and ideas some of which still hold relevance today although many over time have been discredited. It must then be said that Freud’s theory of psychosexual development may in some cases offer us a limited understanding of a client’s issue it would not be ethical practice to rely entirely on this theory when working with a client. Due to its lack of credibility in many areas, Freud’s theory cannot be implemented as a full explanation or means with which to begin the process of understanding and healing. Bibliography Frankland, A. and Sanders, P. 1995. Next steps in counselling. Manchester: PCCS Books. pp.70-76 Hough, M. 2006. Counselling Skills and Theory. 2nd ed. London: Hodder Arnold, pp. 59-86. Malinowski, B. 1927. Sex and repression in savage society. [e-book] London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. http://openlibrary.org/books/OL17967917M/Sex_and_repression_in_savage_society [Accessed: 1st July 2013]. Cherry, K. n.d.. Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development. [online] Available at: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.htm [Accessed: 19 Jun 2013]. Copperwiki.org. 1950. Human Centred Psychotherapy CopperWiki. [online] Available at: http://www.copperwiki.org/index.php?title=Human_Centred_Psychotherapy [Accessed: 01 Jul 2013] En.wikipedia.org. 2013. Psychosexual development Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development [Accessed: 01 Jul 2013]. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072969806/286620/fei69806_ch02